Which statement best indicates that a teenager is in the third stage of ethnic identity development?

The development of a strong and stable sense of self is widely considered to be one of the central tasks of adolescence [1]. Despite the fact that identity development occurs throughout one's lifetime, adolescence is the first time that individuals begin to think about how our identity may affect our lives [2]. During adolescence, we are much more self-conscious about our changing identities than at any other stage in our lives [3].

Visit Toolkit: Identity Development for resources. Learn more about Adolescent Development.

What is Identity?

Identity refers to our sense of who we are as individuals and as members of social groups. Our identities are not simply our own creation: identities grow in response to both internal and external factors. To some extent, each of us chooses an identity, but identities are also formed by environmental forces out of our control [4].

Identity is dynamic and complex, and changes over time.

Self-Identity and Social Identity

• Self-identity refers to how we define ourselves. Self-identity forms the basis of our self-esteem. In adolescence, the way we see ourselves changes in response to peers, family, and school, among other social environments. Our self-identities shape our perceptions of belonging.
   
• Social identity is constructed by others, and may differ from self-identity. Typically, people categorize individuals according to broad, socially-defined labels [4]. For example, if you have dark skin, you may be labelled "black" by others even though you may not have adopted that identity for yourself.

A positive self-identity is correlated with positive self-esteem [5, 6]. All identities are not equally valued by society, so some adolescents may especially need reinforcement to help them construct a positive sense of self.

Dimensions of Identity

Many dimensions of our identity intersect to form our sense of self and cannot be separated from one another. Visible dimensions of identity, such as race and gender, tend to be more important for individuals since they are significant to the individual in every social context and carry more serious consequences in society [4]. For example, race may be important in all social interactions, but political identity, which is not ordinarily visible, may be relevant for some individuals only during election time.

Let's look at an example of how social context may influence one's internal sense of identity.

Jasneet's parents were born in India but she is an American citizen and generally self-identifies as an American. She chooses to celebrate the Indian festival of Diwali with her parents and extended family but celebrates American holidays with her peers from high school.

In this case, Jasneet has an American national identity, but in her home environment finds that her ethnic identity may be important. In her school environment, she may celebrate American holidays and traditions. This illustrates how national and ethnic self identities may vary depending on the social context.

Stages and Statuses of Identity Development

In the 1960s, psychologist Erik Erikson argued that adolescents face a major identity crisis, "Identity vs. Identity Diffusion," which he considered one of the stages of psycho-social development [3]. Successful resolution leads to a secure identity; failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. The key to resolving this crisis lies within the adolescent's interaction with others. James Marcia, also a developmental psychologist, described similar tasks for adolescents, but rather than characterizing them as "stages" he believed the process was non-linear [7]. Marcia proposed that "statuses" of identity development occur in response to crises in domains such as school, relationships, and values, rather than progressing in a linear fashion. According to Marcia:

• Identity Diffusion is the status of adolescents who have not made a commitment to a particular identity. A youth who has not yet considered college or job prospects, for example, could be said to be in the "identity diffusion" status with respect to his professional identity (although in other dimensions his self-identity may be strong). This status may not be resolved unless some experience forces a crisis.
   
• Identity Foreclosure involves committing to an identity prematurely without exploration or choice. This might occur, for example, when traditions are compulsory or parents are insistent on a particular identity, "foreclosing" conscious choice by the adolescent.
   
• Identity Moratorium is a stage of active exploration coupled with low commitment to a particular identity [1].This is an interesting, exciting, and potentially dangerous time for an adolescent that often leads to conflict with parents or other authority figures. Adolescents need to be free to explore their identities, but also need guidance and support to proceed safely through this status.
   
• Identity Achievement is said to occur when the adolescent, having had the opportunity to closely explore an identity, chooses that identity with a high degree of commitment.

References

[1]	The content on this page is condensed from the ACT for Youth presentation Adolescent Identity Development: Who We Are by Alana Butler, Cornell University.
[2]	Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[3]	Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.
[4]	Frideres, J. (2002). Immigrants, Integration, and the Intersection of Identities. Calgary: University of Calgary Press., pp.1-22.
[5]	Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
[6]	Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of inter-group behavior. In S. Worchel & L. W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
[7]	Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3, pp. 551-558.

• Abubakar, A., Aldhafri, S., & Van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2014). Ethnic identity and its relationship to life satisfaction and mental health among Omani youth. In F. Sarracino, & M. Mikucka (Eds.), Beyond money: the social roots of health and well-being (Health psychology research focus). New York: Nova Science Publishers.

  Google Scholar 

• Adams, B. G., Abubakar, A., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., De Bruin, G. P., Arasa, J., Fomba, E., … Murugami, M. (2016). Ethnic identity in emerging adults in Sub-Saharan Africa and the USA, and its associations with psychological well-being. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 26, 236–252. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2247.

• Atienza, F. L., Pons, D., Balaguer, I., & García-Merita, M. L. (2000). Propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de Satisfacción con la Vida en adolescentes. Psicothema, 12, 314–319.

  Google Scholar 

• Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant youth in cultural transition: Acculturation, identity and adaptation across national contexts. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.

  Google Scholar 

• Cheon, Y. M., Bayless, S. D., Wang, Y., & Yip, T. (2018). The development of ethnic/racial self-labeling: Individual differences in context. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0843.

• Corona, R., Velazquez, E., McDonald, S. E., Avila, M., Neff, M., Iglesias, A., & Halfond, R. (2017). Ethnic labels, pride, and challenges: A qualitative study of Latinx youth living in a new Latinx destination community. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 4, 1–13.

  Google Scholar 

• Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Dimitrova, R., Chasiotis, A., Bender, M., & van de Vijver, F. (2017). Identity and well-being of ethnic minority and mainstream adolescents in Bulgaria. Current issues in Personality Psychology, 5, 32–43. https://doi.org/10.5114/cipp.2017.63055.

  Google Scholar 

• Dimitrova, R., Chasiotis, A., & van de Vijver, F. (2016). Adjustment outcomes of immigrant children and youth in Europe: A meta-analysis. European Psychologist, 21, 150–162. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000246.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Dimitrova, R., Johnson, D. J., & van de Vijver, F. (2018). Ethnic socialization ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, life satisfaction and school achievement of Roma ethnic minority youth. Journal of Adolescence, 62, 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.06.003.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Dotterer, A. M., & James, A. (2018). Can parenting microprotections buffer against adolescents’ experiences of racial discrimination? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47, 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0773-6.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Douglass, S., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2017). Examining discrimination, ethnic-racial identity status, and youth public regard among black, Latino, and white adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 27, 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12262.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

  Google Scholar 

• Fuligni, A. J., Kiang, L., Witkow, M. R., & Baldelomar, O. (2008). Stability and change in ethnic labeling among adolescents from Asian and Latin American immigrant families. Child Development, 79, 944–956. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01169.x.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Fuligni, A. J., & Tsai, K. M. (2015). Developmental flexibility in the age of globalization: Autonomy and identity development among immigrant adolescents. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 411–431. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015111.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Hutnik, N. (1986). Patterns of ethnic minority identification and modes of social adaptation. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 9, 150–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1986.9993520.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Kiang, L., & Fuligni, A. J. (2009). Ethnic identity and family processes among adolescents from Latin American, Asian and European backgrounds. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 38, 228–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9353-0.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Kiang, L., Perreira, K. M., & Fuligni, A. J. (2011). Ethnic label use in adolescents from traditional and non-traditional immigrant communities. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 719–729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9597-3.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Kiang, L., & Witkow, M. R. (2018). Identifying as American among adolescents from Asian backgrounds. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(1), 64–76.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Kiang, L., Witkow, M. R., Baldelomar, O. A., & Fuligni, A. J. (2010). Change in ethnic identity across the high school years among adolescents with Latin American, Asian, and European backgrounds. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 683–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9429-5.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Lara, L., & Martínez-Molina, A. (2016). Validación de la Escala de Identidad Étnica Multigrupo-Revisada en adolescentes inmigrantes y autóctonos residentes en España. Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales, Niñez y Juventud, 14(1), 591–601. https://doi.org/10.11600/1692715x.14140110515.

  Google Scholar 

• Liu, S. (2015). Searching for a sense of place: Identity negotiation of Chinese immigrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 46, 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.03.020.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Manuela, S., & Anae, M. (2017). Pacific youth, acculturation and identity: The relationship between ethnic identity and well-being—new directions for research. Pacific Dynamics: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 1, 129–147.

  Google Scholar 

• Marcia, J. E. (1966). Identity development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023281.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Garcia Coll, C. (2018). We have come a long way, baby: “Explaining positive adaptation of immigrant youth across cultures”. Journal of Adolescence, 62, 218–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.09.012.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Parameshwaran, M., & Engzell, P. (2015). Ethnicity in England: What parents’ country of birth can and can't tell us about their children’s ethnic identification. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 41, 399–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2014.92069.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Portes, A., Aparicio, R., & Haller, W. (2016). Spanish legacies: The coming of age of the second generation. Oackland: University of California Press.

  Book  Google Scholar 

• Rivas-Drake, D., Syed, M., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Markstrom, C., French, S., Schwartz, S. J., & Lee, R. (2014). Feeling good, happy, and proud: A meta-analysis of positive ethnic-racial affect and adjustment. Child Development, 85, 77–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12175.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Seaton, E. K., Quintana, S., Verkuyten, M., & Gee, G. G. (2017). Peers, policies, and place: The relation between context and ethnic/racial identity. Child Development, 88, 683–692. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12787.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Syed, M. (2015). Theoretical and methodological contributions of narrative psychology to ethnic identity research. In C. Santos, & A. J. Umaña-Taylor (Eds.), Studying ethnic identity: Methodological advances and considerations for future research, (pp. 27–54). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

  Google Scholar 

• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Austin, & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations, (pp. 7–24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.

  Google Scholar 

• Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., & Seaton, E. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85, 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12196.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Verkuyten, M. (2016). Further conceptualizing ethnic and racial identity research: The social identity approach and its dynamic model. Child Development, 87, 1796–1812. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12555.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Xu, Y., Farver, J. A. M., & Pauker, K. (2015). Ethnic identity and self-esteem among Asian and European Americans: When a minority is the majority and the majority is a minority. European Journal of Social Psychology, 45, 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2061.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Yip, T. (2014). Ethnic identity in everyday life: The influence of identity development status. Child Development, 85, 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12107.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

---

Page 2

• Terms and conditions
• Privacy statement
• Accessibility
• Cookies

Follow SpringerOpen

• SpringerOpen Twitter page
• SpringerOpen Facebook page